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1 tool
1) инструмент; резец; орудие•- air tool - assembly tools - batting tool - bending tool - berm maintenance tool - boring tool - carpenter's tool - claw tool - combine tools - construction tools - constructional tools - coring tool - cutting tool - diagnostic tools - diamond tools - drilling tool - earth-moving tool - electric hand tools - erecting tools - fishing tool - fitter's tool - forging tools - grafting tool - hand tool - hand building tools - hard-alloy tool - hot-line tool - jointer's tool - jointing tool - lewising tool - maintenance tools - marking tools - pneumatic tool - pneumatic construction tools - power tool - power-operated tools - scratch tool - stirring tool - trial boring tool - trowelling tools - wearing tools - woodwork tools* * *инструмент ( обычно ручной); средство; оснастка; орудие; приспособление- abrasive tool
- air tool
- arrising tool
- beading tool
- blade tools
- caulking tool
- connecting tools
- crimping tool
- diamond tool
- electrically driven tools
- electric hand-held tools
- electric hand tools
- electric power tools
- electro-hydraulic hand-held tool
- erecting tools
- excavating tools
- fastening tool
- finishing tools
- finishing power tools
- fishing tools
- flaring tool
- grooving tool
- hand tools
- hand tool
- hand-held hydraulic tools
- hand-held power tools
- labor saving tools
- machine tool
- Mackintosh boring and prospecting tool
- mechanical hand tools
- painter's hand tools
- pitching tool
- pneumatic hand tools
- pneumatic tools
- portable electric power tools
- power-actuated fastening tool
- power-driven hand tools
- power hand tools
- rotary-percussion powered tools
- rotary-percussion power tools
- rotary powered tools
- rotary power tools
- sampling tool
- small tools
- small tools and equipment
- stamping tool
- straightedging tool
- swaging tool
- track tool
- vibrating tool -
2 travail
1. masculine nouna. ( = activité) le travail work• avoir du travail/beaucoup de travail to have some work/a lot of work to do• horaire/vêtements de travail work schedule/clothes• conditions/méthodes/groupe/déjeuner de travail working conditions/methods/group/lunch• à travail égal, salaire égal equal pay for equal work• améliorer la communication, c'est tout un travail ! improving communications is quite a task!• c'est un travail de spécialiste (difficile à faire) it's a job for a specialist ; (bien fait) it's the work of a specialist• travaux de recherche/de construction research/building work• « pendant les travaux, le magasin restera ouvert » "business as usual during alterations"• « attention ! travaux ! » "caution! work in progress!" ; (sur la route) "roadworks ahead!" (Brit) "roadwork ahead!" (US)• avoir un travail intéressant/lucratif to have an interesting/a highly paid job• travail d'équipe or en équipe team workd. ( = façonnage) [de bois, cuir, fer] working2. compounds► un travail de fourmi a long, painstaking job* * *
1.
pl - aux tʀavaj, o nom masculin1) ( contraire de repos) work2) (tâche faite, à faire) job; (ensemble des tâches, besogne) work [U]j'ai un travail fou — I'm up to my eyes in work, I've got a lot of work on
3) ( fait d'exercer un emploi) work; ( emploi rémunéré) work [U], job; ( lieu) work4) Économie, Sociologie (activité, population active) labour [BrE] [U]division du travail — division of labour [BrE]
5) ( résultat d'un fonctionnement) (de machine, d'organe) work [U]6) ( ouvrage érudit) work ( sur on)7) ( façonnage)le travail de — working with ou in [métal, bois, pierre]
apprendre le travail du bois/métal — to learn woodwork/metalwork
8) (technique, exécution) workmanship9) Physique work10) ( action) (d'eau, érosion) action (de of); fig (d'imagination, inconscient) workings (pl) (de of)11) ( altération) ( de vin) fermentation, working; ( de bois) warping12) Médecine ( pendant un accouchement) labour [BrE]
2.
travaux nom masculin pluriel1) ( en chantier) work [U]; ( sur une route) roadworks GB, roadwork [U] UStravaux de construction — construction work [U]
‘fermé pour travaux’ — ( sur une devanture) ‘closed for repairs ou alterations’
‘attention, travaux’ — gén ‘caution, work in progress’; ( sur une route) ‘caution, road under repair’
2) (recherche, études) work [U] ( sur on)3) ( débats) deliberationsles travaux agricoles/de la ferme — agricultural/farm work [U]
travaux de couture — needlework [U]
•Phrasal Verbs:* * *tʀavaj, o travaux pl1. nm1) (= activité, effort) workJ'ai beaucoup de travail. — I've got a lot of work.
C'est un travail épuisant. — It's exhausting work.
se mettre au travail — to start work, to get down to work
outils de travail — working tools, work tools
2) (= tâche spécifique) jobDonne-lui un travail facile. — Give him an easy job.
3) (= emploi, gagne-pain) job, work no plIl a un travail intéressant. — He's got an interesting job.
Il est sans travail depuis un an. — He has been out of work for a year.
4) (= lieu) workAu travail, je m'entends bien avec mes collègues. — I get on well with my colleagues at work.
5) ÉCONOMIE (= ressource, facteur) labour Grande-Bretagne labor USAla législation du travail — labour law, labour legislation
6) MÉDECINE (de l'accouchement) labour Grande-Bretagne labor USA7) (= façonnage)2. travaux nmpl(= chantier) (de réparation, agricoles) work, (sur route) roadworks, [construction] building work, building* * *I.A nm1 ( contraire de repos) work; le travail intellectuel intellectual work; le travail scolaire schoolwork; ça demande des mois de travail it requires months of work; se mettre au travail to get down to work, to start work; être en plein travail to be busy working;2 (tâche faite, à faire) job; (ensemble des tâches, besogne) work ¢; faire un travail to do a job; distribuer le travail to allocate jobs; ce n'est pas mon travail it's not my job; c'est un travail de professionnel ( à faire) it's a job for a professional; ( bien fait) it's a very professional job; c'est un travail d'homme it's man's work; commencer un travail to start a job; mener un travail de recherche to do research work; avoir du travail to have work to do; j'ai un travail fou I'm up to my eyes in work, I've got a lot of work on; les enfants, ça donne du travail, les enfants, c'est du travail children make a lot of work; les gros travaux the heavy work; s'occuper à de petits travaux to do little jobs; faire quelques travaux de jardinage to do a few gardening jobs; (félicitations) c'est du beau travail! aussi iron you've done a great job on that; qu'est-ce que c'est que ce travail? what do you call this?; et voilà le travail! that's that done!;3 ( fait d'exercer un emploi) work; ( emploi rémunéré) work ¢, job; ( lieu) work; ne me téléphone pas à mon travail don't call me at work; chercher du/un travail to look for work/a job; bien content d'avoir du/un travail glad to be in work/to have a job; être sans travail to be out of work; donner du travail à qn ( employer) to give sb a job; reprendre le travail to go back to work; cesser le travail to stop work; aller au travail to go to work; être au travail to be at work; que fais-tu comme travail? what do you do?, what's your job?; il ne fait que son travail he's only doing his job; le travail en usine/de bureau factory/office ou clerical work; le travail temporaire/à mi-temps temporary/part-time work; un travail à mi-temps a part-time job; le travail en équipe team work; le travail en équipes shiftwork; le travail de nuit nightwork; il a un travail de nuit he works nights; le travail indépendant freelance work, self-employment; conditions/semaine de travail working conditions/week; vivre de son travail to work for one's living; ⇒ salaire;4 Écon, Sociol (activité, population active) labourGB ¢; le capital et le travail capital and labourGB; organisation/division du travail organization/division of labourGB; force de travail workforce; entrer dans le monde du travail to enter the world of work; la psychologie du travail industrial psychology;5 ( résultat d'un fonctionnement) (de machine, d'organe) work ¢; le travail du cœur the work done by the heart; le travail musculaire muscular effort, the work done by the muscles;6 ( ouvrage érudit) work (sur on); publier un travail sur la Renaissance to publish a work on the Renaissance;7 ( façonnage) le travail de working with ou in [métal, bois, pierre]; le travail de l'ivoire est difficile working with ou in ivory is difficult; apprendre le travail du bois/métal to learn woodwork/metalwork;8 (technique, exécution) workmanship; un travail superbe a superb piece of workmanship; un coffret d'un beau travail a beautifully made box; une dentelle d'un travail délicat a delicate piece of lacework;10 ( action) (d'eau, érosion) action (de of); fig (d'imagination, inconscient) workings (pl) (de of); le travail du temps the work of time;12 Méd ( pendant accouchement) labourGB; entrer/être en travail to go into/be in labourGB; salle de travail labourGB ward.B travaux nmpl1 ( en chantier) work (sg); ( sur une route) roadworks GB, roadwork ¢ US; travaux de construction/réfection/soutènement construction/renovation/retaining work ¢; travaux de terrassement earthworks; travaux d'aménagement ( de bâtiment) alterations (de to), improvements (de to); ( d'un site) redevelopment ¢ (de of); ( d'une route) roadworks (de on); faire faire des travaux dans sa maison to have work done in one's house; nous sommes en plein travaux we're in the middle of having some work done; ‘fermé pour travaux’ ( sur une devanture) ‘closed for repairs ou alterations’; ‘attention, travaux’ gén ‘caution, work in progress’; ( sur une route) ‘caution, road under repair’;2 (recherche, études) work ¢ (sur on); publier le résultat de ses travaux to publish the results of one's work;3 ( débats) (d'assemblée, de commission) deliberations;4 ( opérations de même nature) les travaux agricoles/de la ferme agricultural/farm work; travaux de couture needlework.travail à la chaîne assembly-line work; travail clandestin work for which no earnings are declared; travail à domicile working at or from home; travail des enfants child labourGB; travail d'intérêt général Jur community service; travail manuel manual work; travail au noir○ gén work for which no earnings are declared; ( exercice d'un second emploi non déclaré) moonlighting; travail aux pièces piece work; travail posté shift work; travail de Romain Herculean task; travail de titan = travail de Romain; travaux d'aiguille needlework ¢; travaux des champs agricultural ou farm work ¢; travaux de dame fancywork ¢; travaux dirigés, TD Univ practical (sg); travaux forcés Jur hard labourGB (sg); fig slave labourGB ¢; travaux manuels Scol handicrafts; travaux ménagers housework ¢; travaux pratiques, TP Scol, Univ practical work ¢; ( en laboratoire) lab work ¢; travaux préparatoires Jur ( pour un texte de loi) preliminary documents; travaux publics, TP ( travail) civil engineering ¢; ( ouvrages) civil engineering works, public works; travaux routiers roadworks GB, roadwork ¢ US.II.I( pluriel travaux) [travaj, o] nom masculinA.[ACTION]1. [occupation]le travail de jour/nuit day/night workje finis le travail à cinq heures I stop ou finish work at fiveun travail de longue haleine a long-term work ou projectle travail posté ou par roulement shift workle travail manuel manual work ou laboura. [occasionnel] undeclared casual work, moonlightingb. [comme pratique généralisée] black economya. [généralement] temporary workb. [dans un bureau] temping2. [tâches imposées] work3. [tâche déterminée] jobfaire un travail de recherche/traduction to do a piece of research/a translationc'est un travail de bagnard ou forçat it's back-breaking work ou a back-breaking jobc'est un travail de Romain ou de Titan it's a colossal job4. [efforts] (hard) workil a encore du travail s'il veut devenir champion he's still got a lot of work to do if he wants to be champion5. [exécution] workon lui a confié les peintures et elle a fait du bon/mauvais travail she was responsible for doing the painting and she made a good/bad job of itje ne retrouve pas une seule disquette, qu'est-ce que c'est que ce travail? I can't find a single floppy disc, what's going on here?6. [façonnage] workingelle est attirée par le travail du bois/de la soie she's interested in working with wood/with silk[responsabilité] jobchercher du ou un travail to be job-hunting, to be looking for a jobsans travail unemployed, jobless, out of work8. [dans le système capitaliste] labour9. [contrainte exercée - par la chaleur, l'érosion] action10. PHYSIOLOGIE [accouchement] labourle travail n'est pas commencé/est commencé the patient has not yet gone/has gone into labour[activité] workréduire le travail du cœur/des reins to lighten the strain on the heart/on the kidneysB.[RÉSULTAT, EFFET]1. [écrit] piece2. [transformation - généralement] work[modification interne - dans le bois] warping ; [ - dans le fromage] maturing ; [ - dans le vin] workingtravaux nom masculin pluriel‘fermé pendant les travaux’ ‘closed for ou during alterations’‘attention, travaux’ ‘caution, work in progress’travaux domestiques ou ménagers houseworka. [généralement] arts and craftsa. [généralement] practical workb. [en laboratoire] lab work2. [d'une commission] work————————au travail locution adverbialese mettre au travail to get down ou to set to workallez, au travail! come on, get to work!————————de travail locution adjectivale1. [horaire, séance] working[vêtement, camarade, permis] work (modificateur)2. [d'accouchement - période] labour (modificateur) ; [ - salle] labour (modificateur), delivery (modificateur)————————du travail locution adjectivale[accident, sociologie, législation] industrial————————en travail adverbeentrer en travail to go into ou to start labourII -
3 Bramah, Joseph
SUBJECT AREA: Civil engineering, Domestic appliances and interiors, Land transport, Mechanical, pneumatic and hydraulic engineering, Public utilities[br]b. 2 April 1749 Stainborough, Yorkshire, Englandd. 9 December 1814 Pimlico, London, England[br]English inventor of the second patented water-closet, the beer-engine, the Bramah lock and, most important, the hydraulic press.[br]Bramah was the son of a tenant farmer and was educated at the village school before being apprenticed to a local carpenter, Thomas Allot. He walked to London c.1773 and found work with a Mr Allen that included the repair of some of the comparatively rare water-closets of the period. He invented and patented one of his own, which was followed by a water cock in 1783. His next invention, a greatly improved lock, involved the devising of a number of special machine tools, for it was one of the first devices involving interchangeable components in its manufacture. In this he had the help of Henry Maudslay, then a young and unknown engineer, who became Bramah's foreman before setting up business on his own. In 1784 he moved his premises from Denmark Street, St Giles, to 124 Piccadilly, which was later used as a showroom when he set up a factory in Pimlico. He invented an engine for putting out fires in 1785 and 1793, in effect a reciprocating rotary-vane pump. He undertook the refurbishment and modernization of Norwich waterworks c.1793, but fell out with Robert Mylne, who was acting as Consultant to the Norwich Corporation and had produced a remarkably vague specification. This was Bramah's only venture into the field of civil engineering.In 1797 he acted as an expert witness for Hornblower \& Maberley in the patent infringement case brought against them by Boulton and Watt. Having been cut short by the judge, he published his proposed evidence in "Letter to the Rt Hon. Sir James Eyre, Lord Chief Justice of the Common Pleas…etc". In 1795 he was granted his most important patent, based on Pascal's Hydrostatic Paradox, for the hydraulic press which also incorporated the concept of hydraulics for the transmission of both power and motion and was the foundation of the whole subsequent hydraulic industry. There is no truth in the oft-repeated assertion originating from Samuel Smiles's Industrial Biography (1863) that the hydraulic press could not be made to work until Henry Maudslay invented the self-sealing neck leather. Bramah used a single-acting upstroking ram, sealed only at its base with a U-leather. There was no need for a neck leather.He also used the concept of the weight-loaded, in this case as a public-house beer-engine. He devised machinery for carbonating soda water. The first banknote-numbering machine was of his design and was bought by the Bank of England. His development of a machine to cut twelve nibs from one goose quill started a patent specification which ended with the invention of the fountain pen, patented in 1809. His coach brakes were an innovation that was followed bv a form of hydropneumatic carriage suspension that was somewhat in advance of its time, as was his patent of 1812. This foresaw the introduction of hydraulic power mains in major cities and included the telescopic ram and the air-loaded accumulator.In all Joseph Bramah was granted eighteen patents. On 22 March 1813 he demonstrated a hydraulic machine for pulling up trees by the roots in Hyde Park before a large crowd headed by the Duke of York. Using the same machine in Alice Holt Forest in Hampshire to fell timber for ships for the Navy, he caught a chill and died soon after at his home in Pimlico.[br]Bibliography1778, British patent no. 1177 (water-closet). 1784, British patent no. 1430 (Bramah Lock). 1795, British patent no. 2045 (hydraulic press). 1809, British patent no. 3260 (fountain pen). 1812, British patent no. 3611.Further ReadingI.McNeil, 1968, Joseph Bramah, a Century of Invention.S.Smiles, 1863, Industrial Biography.H.W.Dickinson, 1942, "Joseph Bramah and his inventions", Transactions of the Newcomen Society 22:169–86.IMcN -
4 Smeaton, John
SUBJECT AREA: Civil engineering, Mechanical, pneumatic and hydraulic engineering, Steam and internal combustion engines[br]b. 8 June 1724 Austhorpe, near Leeds, Yorkshire, Englandd. 28 October 1792 Austhorpe, near Leeds, Yorkshire, England[br]English mechanical and civil engineer.[br]As a boy, Smeaton showed mechanical ability, making for himself a number of tools and models. This practical skill was backed by a sound education, probably at Leeds Grammar School. At the age of 16 he entered his father's office; he seemed set to follow his father's profession in the law. In 1742 he went to London to continue his legal studies, but he preferred instead, with his father's reluctant permission, to set up as a scientific instrument maker and dealer and opened a shop of his own in 1748. About this time he began attending meetings of the Royal Society and presented several papers on instruments and mechanical subjects, being elected a Fellow in 1753. His interests were turning towards engineering but were informed by scientific principles grounded in careful and accurate observation.In 1755 the second Eddystone lighthouse, on a reef some 14 miles (23 km) off the English coast at Plymouth, was destroyed by fire. The President of the Royal Society was consulted as to a suitable engineer to undertake the task of constructing a new one, and he unhesitatingly suggested Smeaton. Work began in 1756 and was completed in three years to produce the first great wave-swept stone lighthouse. It was constructed of Portland stone blocks, shaped and pegged both together and to the base rock, and bonded by hydraulic cement, scientifically developed by Smeaton. It withstood the storms of the English Channel for over a century, but by 1876 erosion of the rock had weakened the structure and a replacement had to be built. The upper portion of Smeaton's lighthouse was re-erected on a suitable base on Plymouth Hoe, leaving the original base portion on the reef as a memorial to the engineer.The Eddystone lighthouse made Smeaton's reputation and from then on he was constantly in demand as a consultant in all kinds of engineering projects. He carried out a number himself, notably the 38 mile (61 km) long Forth and Clyde canal with thirty-nine locks, begun in 1768 but for financial reasons not completed until 1790. In 1774 he took charge of the Ramsgate Harbour works.On the mechanical side, Smeaton undertook a systematic study of water-and windmills, to determine the design and construction to achieve the greatest power output. This work issued forth as the paper "An experimental enquiry concerning the natural powers of water and wind to turn mills" and exerted a considerable influence on mill design during the early part of the Industrial Revolution. Between 1753 and 1790 Smeaton constructed no fewer than forty-four mills.Meanwhile, in 1756 he had returned to Austhorpe, which continued to be his home base for the rest of his life. In 1767, as a result of the disappointing performance of an engine he had been involved with at New River Head, Islington, London, Smeaton began his important study of the steam-engine. Smeaton was the first to apply scientific principles to the steam-engine and achieved the most notable improvements in its efficiency since its invention by Newcomen, until its radical overhaul by James Watt. To compare the performance of engines quantitatively, he introduced the concept of "duty", i.e. the weight of water that could be raised 1 ft (30 cm) while burning one bushel (84 lb or 38 kg) of coal. The first engine to embody his improvements was erected at Long Benton colliery in Northumberland in 1772, with a duty of 9.45 million pounds, compared to the best figure obtained previously of 7.44 million pounds. One source of heat loss he attributed to inaccurate boring of the cylinder, which he was able to improve through his close association with Carron Ironworks near Falkirk, Scotland.[br]Principal Honours and DistinctionsFRS 1753.Bibliography1759, "An experimental enquiry concerning the natural powers of water and wind to turn mills", Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society.Towards the end of his life, Smeaton intended to write accounts of his many works but only completed A Narrative of the Eddystone Lighthouse, 1791, London.Further ReadingS.Smiles, 1874, Lives of the Engineers: Smeaton and Rennie, London. A.W.Skempton, (ed.), 1981, John Smeaton FRS, London: Thomas Telford. L.T.C.Rolt and J.S.Allen, 1977, The Steam Engine of Thomas Newcomen, 2nd edn, Hartington: Moorland Publishing, esp. pp. 108–18 (gives a good description of his work on the steam-engine).LRD -
5 Fox, Samson
SUBJECT AREA: Mechanical, pneumatic and hydraulic engineering, Metallurgy, Steam and internal combustion engines[br]b. 11 July 1838 Bowling, near Bradford, Yorkshire, Englandd. 24 October 1903 Walsall, Staffordshire, England[br]English engineer who invented the corrugated boiler furnace.[br]He was the son of a cloth mill worker in Leeds and at the age of 10 he joined his father at the mill. Showing a mechanical inclination, he was apprenticed to a firm of machine-tool makers, Smith, Beacock and Tannett. There he rose to become Foreman and Traveller, and designed and patented tools for cutting bevelled gears. With his brother and one Refitt, he set up the Silver Cross engineering works for making special machine tools. In 1874 he founded the Leeds Forge Company, acting as Managing Director until 1896 and then as Chairman until shortly before his death.It was in 1877 that he patented his most important invention, the corrugated furnace for steam-boilers. These furnaces could withstand much higher pressures than the conventional form, and higher working pressures in marine boilers enabled triple-expansion engines to be installed, greatly improving the performance of steamships, and the outcome was the great ocean-going liners of the twentieth century. The first vessel to be equipped with the corrugated furnace was the Pretoria of 1878. At first the furnaces were made by hammering iron plates using swage blocks under a steam hammer. A plant for rolling corrugated plates was set up at Essen in Germany, and Fox installed a similar mill at his works in Leeds in 1882.In 1886 Fox installed a Siemens steelmaking plant and he was notable in the movement for replacing wrought iron with steel. He took out several patents for making pressed-steel underframes for railway wagons. The business prospered and Fox opened a works near Chicago in the USA, where in addition to wagon underframes he manufactured the first American pressed-steel carriages. He later added a works at Pittsburgh.Fox was the first in England to use water gas for his metallurgical operations and for lighting, with a saving in cost as it was cheaper than coal gas. He was also a pioneer in the acetylene industry, producing in 1894 the first calcium carbide, from which the gas is made.Fox took an active part in public life in and around Leeds, being thrice elected Mayor of Harrogate. As a music lover, he was a benefactor of musicians, contributing no less than £45,000 towards the cost of building the Royal College of Music in London, opened in 1894. In 1897 he sued for libel the author Jerome K.Jerome and the publishers of the Today magazine for accusing him of misusing his great generosity to the College to give a misleading impression of his commercial methods and prosperity. He won the case but was not awarded costs.[br]Principal Honours and DistinctionsRoyal Society of Arts James Watt Silver Medal and Howard Gold Medal. Légion d'honneur 1889.Bibliography1877, British Patent nos. 1097 and 2530 (the corrugated furnace or "flue", as it was often called).Further ReadingObituary, 1903, Proceedings of the Institution of Mechanical Engineers: 919–21.Obituary, 1903, Proceedings of the Institution of Civil Engineers (the fullest of the many obituary notices).G.A.Newby, 1993, "Behind the fire doors: Fox's corrugated furnace 1877 and the high pressure steamship", Transactions of the Newcomen Society 64.LRD -
6 lever
Iநெம்புகோல்IIநெம்புகோல்நெம்புகோல்IVசுண்டிVநெம்புகோல்VIநெம்புகோல்Physiology & Hygieneநெம்புக்கோல்நெம்புகோல், நெம்பிIXநெம்புகோல்Xநெம்புகோல்XIநெம்புகோல்நெம்புகோல்நெம்புகோல்நெம்புக்கோல்XVநெம்புகோல்நெம்புநெம்புநெம்புகோல்நெம்புகோல் -
7 Hall, Joseph
SUBJECT AREA: Metallurgy[br]b. 1789d. 1862[br]English ironmaker who invented the wet puddling process.[br]Hall was a practical man with no theoretical background: his active years were spent at Bloomfield Ironworks, Tipton, Staffordshire. Around 1816 he began experimenting in the production of wrought iron. At that time, blast-furnace or cast iron was converted to wrought iron by the dry puddling process invented by Henry Cort in 1784. In this process, the iron was decarburized (i.e. had its carbon removed) by heating it in a current of air in a furnace with a sand bed. Some of the iron combined with the silica in the sand to form a slag, however, so that no less than 2 tons of cast iron were needed to produce 1 ton of wrought. Hall found that if bosh cinder was charged into the furnace, a vigorous reaction occurred in which the cast iron was converted much more quickly than before, to produce better quality wrought iron, a ton of which could be formed by no more than 21 cwt (1,067 kg) of cast iron. Because of the boiling action, the process came to be known as pig boiling. Bosh cinder, essentially iron oxide, was formed in the water troughs or boshes in which workers cooled their tools used in puddling and reacted with the carbon in the cast iron. The advantages of pig boiling over dry puddling were striking enough for the process to be widely used by the late 1820s. By mid-century it was virtually the only process used for producing wrought iron, an essential material for mechanical and civil engineering during the Industrial Revolution. Hall reckoned that if he had patented his invention he would have "made a million". As luck would have it, the process that he did patent in 1838 left his finances unchanged: this was for the roasting of cinder for use as the base of the puddling furnace, providing better protection than the bosh cinder for the iron plates that formed the base.[br]Bibliography1857, The Iron Question Considered in Connection with Theory, Practice and Experience with Special Reference to the Bessemer Process, London.Further ReadingJ.Percy, 1864, Metallurgy. Iron and Steel, London, pp. 670 ff. W.K.V.Gale, Iron and Steel, London: Longmans, pp. 46–50.LRD -
8 Spencer, Christopher Miner
[br]b. 10 June 1833 Manchester, Connecticut, USAd. 14 January 1922 Hartford, Connecticut, USA[br]American mechanical engineer and inventor.[br]Christopher M.Spencer served an apprenticeship from 1847 to 1849 in the machine shop at the silk mills of Cheney Brothers in his native town and remained there for a few years as a journeyman machinist. In 1853 he went to Rochester, New York, to obtain experience with machinery other than that used in the textile industry. He then spent some years with the Colt Armory at Hartford, Connecticut, before returning to Cheney Brothers, where he obtained his first patent, which was for a silk-winding machine.Spencer had long been interested in firearms and in 1860 he obtained a patent for a repeating rifle. The Spencer Repeating Rifle Company was organized for its manufacture, and before the end of the American Civil War about 200,000 rifles had been produced. He patented a number of other improvements in firearms and in 1868 was associated with Charles E.Billings (1835–1920) in the Roper Arms Company, set up at Amherst, Massachusetts, to manufacture Spencer's magazine gun. This was not a success, however, and in 1869 they moved to Hartford, Connecticut, and formed the Billings \& Spencer Company. There they developed the technology of the drop hammer and Spencer continued his inventive work, which included an automatic turret lathe for producing metal screws. The patent that he obtained for this in 1873 inexplicably failed to protect the essential feature of the machine which provided the automatic action, with the result that Spencer received no patent right on the most valuable feature of the machine.In 1874 Spencer withdrew from active connection with Billings \& Spencer, although he remained a director, and in 1876 he formed with others the Hartford Machine Screw Company. However, he withdrew in 1882 to form the Spencer Arms Company at Windsor, Connecticut, for the manufacture of another of his inventions, a repeating shotgun. But this company failed and Spencer returned to the field of automatic lathes, and in 1893 he organized the Spencer Automatic Machine Screw Company at Windsor, where he remained until his retirement.[br]Further ReadingJ.W.Roe, 1916, English and American Tool Builders, New Haven; reprinted 1926, New York, and 1987, Bradley, Ill. (briefly describes his career and his automatic lathes).L.T.C.Rolt, 1965, Tools for the Job, London; repub. 1986 (gives a brief description of Spencer's automatic lathes).RTSBiographical history of technology > Spencer, Christopher Miner
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9 Holtzapffel, Charles
SUBJECT AREA: Mechanical, pneumatic and hydraulic engineering[br]b. 1806 London, Englandd. 11 April 1847 London, England[br]English mechanical engineer and author of Turning and Mechanical Manipulation.[br]Charles Holtzapffel was the son of John Holtzapffel, a native of Germany who settled in London c.1787 and set up as a manufacturer of lathes and tools for amateur mechanics. Charles Holtzapffel received a good English education and training in his father's workshop, and subsequently became a partner and ultimately succeeded to the business. He was engaged in the construction of machinery for printing banknotes, of lathes for cutting rosettes and for ornamental and plain turning. Holtzapffel is chiefly remembered for his monumental work entitled Turning and Mechanical Manipulation, intended as a work of general reference and practical instruction on the lathe. Publication began in 1843 and only the first two volumes were published in his lifetime. A third volume was edited by his widow from his notes and published shortly after his death. The fourth and fifth volumes were completed by his son, John Jacob Holtzapffel, more than thirty years later. Holtzapffel was an Associate of the Institution of Civil Engineers and served on its Council: he was also a member of the Society of Arts and Chairman of its Committee on Mechanics.RTS -
10 Whitworth, Sir Joseph
[br]b. 21 December 1803 Stockport, Cheshire, Englandd. 22 January 1887 Monte Carlo, Monaco[br]English mechanical engineer and pioneer of precision measurement.[br]Joseph Whitworth received his early education in a school kept by his father, but from the age of 12 he attended a school near Leeds. At 14 he joined his uncle's mill near Ambergate, Derbyshire, to learn the business of cotton spinning. In the four years he spent there he realized that he was more interested in the machinery than in managing a cotton mill. In 1821 he obtained employment as a mechanic with Crighton \& Co., Manchester. In 1825 he moved to London and worked for Henry Maudslay and later for the Holtzapffels and Joseph Clement. After these years spent gaining experience, he returned to Manchester in 1833 and set up in a small workshop under a sign "Joseph Whitworth, Tool Maker, from London".The business expanded steadily and the firm made machine tools of all types and other engineering products including steam engines. From 1834 Whitworth obtained many patents in the fields of machine tools, textile and knitting machinery and road-sweeping machines. By 1851 the company was generally regarded as the leading manufacturer of machine tools in the country. Whitworth was a pioneer of precise measurement and demonstrated the fundamental mode of producing a true plane by making surface plates in sets of three. He advocated the use of the decimal system and made use of limit gauges, and he established a standard screw thread which was adopted as the national standard. In 1853 Whitworth visited America as a member of a Royal Commission and reported on American industry. At the time of the Crimean War in 1854 he was asked to provide machinery for manufacturing rifles and this led him to design an improved rifle of his own. Although tests in 1857 showed this to be much superior to all others, it was not adopted by the War Office. Whitworth's experiments with small arms led on to the construction of big guns and projectiles. To improve the quality of the steel used for these guns, he subjected the molten metal to pressure during its solidification, this fluid-compressed steel being then known as "Whitworth steel".In 1868 Whitworth established thirty annual scholarships for engineering students. After his death his executors permanently endowed the Whitworth Scholarships and distributed his estate of nearly half a million pounds to various educational and charitable institutions. Whitworth was elected an Associate of the Institution of Civil Engineers in 1841 and a Member in 1848 and served on its Council for many years. He was elected a Member of the Institution of Mechanical Engineers in 1847, the year of its foundation.[br]Principal Honours and DistinctionsBaronet 1869. FRS 1857. President, Institution of Mechanical Engineers 1856, 1857 and 1866. Hon. LLD Trinity College, Dublin, 1863. Hon. DCL Oxford University 1868. Member of the Smeatonian Society of Civil Engineers 1864. Légion d'honneur 1868. Society of Arts Albert Medal 1868.Bibliography1858, Miscellaneous Papers on Mechanical Subjects, London; 1873, Miscellaneous Papers on Practical Subjects: Guns and Steel, London (both are collections of his papers to technical societies).1854, with G.Wallis, The Industry of the United States in Machinery, Manufactures, andUseful and Ornamental Arts, London.Further ReadingF.C.Lea, 1946, A Pioneer of Mechanical Engineering: Sir Joseph Whitworth, London (a short biographical account).A.E.Musson, 1963, "Joseph Whitworth: toolmaker and manufacturer", Engineering Heritage, Vol. 1, London, 124–9 (a short biography).D.J.Jeremy (ed.), 1984–6, Dictionary of Business Biography, Vol. 5, London, 797–802 (a short biography).W.Steeds, 1969, A History of Machine Tools 1700–1910, Oxford (describes Whitworth's machine tools).RTS -
11 Bodmer, Johann Georg
SUBJECT AREA: Mechanical, pneumatic and hydraulic engineering, Railways and locomotives, Steam and internal combustion engines, Textiles, Weapons and armour[br]b. 9 December 1786 Zurich, Switzerlandd. 30 May 1864 Zurich, Switzerland[br]Swiss mechanical engineer and inventor.[br]John George Bodmer (as he was known in England) showed signs of great inventive ability even as a child. Soon after completing his apprenticeship to a local millwright, he set up his own work-shop at Zussnacht. One of his first inventions, in 1805, was a shell which exploded on impact. Soon after this he went into partnership with Baron d'Eichthal to establish a cotton mill at St Blaise in the Black Forest. Bodmer designed the water-wheels and all the machinery. A few years later they established a factory for firearms and Bodmer designed special machine tools and developed a system of interchangeable manufacture comparable with American developments at that time. More inventions followed, including a detachable bayonet for breech-loading rifles and a rifled, breech-loading cannon for 12 lb (5.4 kg) shells.Bodmer was appointed by the Grand Duke of Baden to the posts of Director General of the Government Iron Works and Inspector of Artillery. He left St Blaise in 1816 and entered completely into the service of the Grand Duke, but before taking up his duties he visited Britain for the first time and made an intensive five-month tour of textile mills, iron works, workshops and similar establishments.In 1821 he returned to Switzerland and was engaged in setting up cotton mills and other engineering works. In 1824 he went back to England, where he obtained a patent for his improvements in cotton machinery and set up a mill near Bolton incorporating his ideas. His health failing, he was obliged to return to Switzerland in 1828, but he was soon busy with engineering works there and in France. In 1833 he went to England again, first to Bolton and four years later to Manchester in partnership with H.H.Birley. In the next ten years he patented many more inventions in the fields of textile machinery, steam engines and machine tools. These included a balanced steam engine, a mechanical stoker, steam engine valve gear, gear-cutting machines and a circular planer or vertical lathe, anticipating machines of this type later developed in America by E.P. Bullard. The metric system was used in his workshops and in gearing calculations he introduced the concept of diametral pitch, which then became known as "Manchester Pitch". The balanced engine was built in stationary form and in two locomotives, but although their running was remarkably smooth the additional complication prevented their wider use.After the death of H.H.Birley in 1846, Bodmer removed to London until 1848, when he went to Austria. About 1860 he returned to his native town of Zurich. He remained actively engaged in all kinds of inventions up to the end of his life. He obtained fourteen British patents, each of which describes many inventions; two of these patents were extended beyond the normal duration of fourteen years. Two others were obtained on his behalf, one by his brother James in 1813 for his cannon and one relating to railways by Charles Fox in 1847. Many of his inventions had little direct influence but anticipated much later developments. His ideas were sound and some of his engines and machine tools were in use for over sixty years. He was elected a Member of the Institution of Civil Engineers in 1835.[br]Bibliography1845, "The advantages of working stationary and marine engines with high-pressure steam, expansively and at great velocities; and of the compensating, or double crank system", Minutes of the Proceedings of the Institution of Civil Engineers 4:372–99.1846, "On the combustion of fuel in furnaces and steam-boilers, with a description of Bodmer's fire-grate", Minutes of the Proceedings of the Institution of Civil Engineers 5:362–8.Further ReadingObituary, 1868–9, Minutes of the Proceedings of the Institution of Civil Engineers 28:573–608.H.W.Dickinson, 1929–30, "Diary of John George Bodmer, 1816–17", Transactions of the Newcomen Society 10:102–14.D.Brownlie, 1925–6, John George Bodmer, his life and work, particularly in relation to the evolution of mechanical stoking', Transactions of the Newcomen Society 6:86–110.W.O.Henderson (ed.), 1968, Industrial Britain Under the Regency: The Diaries of Escher, Bodmer, May and de Gallois 1814–1818, London: Frank Cass (a more complete account of his visit to Britain).RTS -
12 Roberts, Richard
[br]b. 22 April 1789 Carreghova, Llanymynech, Montgomeryshire, Walesd. 11 March 1864 London, England[br]Welsh mechanical engineer and inventor.[br]Richard Roberts was the son of a shoemaker and tollkeeper and received only an elementary education at the village school. At the age of 10 his interest in mechanics was stimulated when he was allowed by the Curate, the Revd Griffith Howell, to use his lathe and other tools. As a young man Roberts acquired a considerable local reputation for his mechanical skills, but these were exercised only in his spare time. For many years he worked in the local limestone quarries, until at the age of 20 he obtained employment as a pattern-maker in Staffordshire. In the next few years he worked as a mechanic in Liverpool, Manchester and Salford before moving in 1814 to London, where he obtained employment with Henry Maudslay. In 1816 he set up on his own account in Manchester. He soon established a reputation there for gear-cutting and other general engineering work, especially for the textile industry, and by 1821 he was employing about twelve men. He built machine tools mainly for his own use, including, in 1817, one of the first planing machines.One of his first inventions was a gas meter, but his first patent was obtained in 1822 for improvements in looms. His most important contribution to textile technology was his invention of the self-acting spinning mule, patented in 1825. The normal fourteen-year term of this patent was extended in 1839 by a further seven years. Between 1826 and 1828 Roberts paid several visits to Alsace, France, arranging cottonspinning machinery for a new factory at Mulhouse. By 1826 he had become a partner in the firm of Sharp Brothers, the company then becoming Sharp, Roberts \& Co. The firm continued to build textile machinery, and in the 1830s it built locomotive engines for the newly created railways and made one experimental steam-carriage for use on roads. The partnership was dissolved in 1843, the Sharps establishing a new works to continue locomotive building while Roberts retained the existing factory, known as the Globe Works, where he soon after took as partners R.G.Dobinson and Benjamin Fothergill (1802–79). This partnership was dissolved c. 1851, and Roberts continued in business on his own for a few years before moving to London as a consulting engineer.During the 1840s and 1850s Roberts produced many new inventions in a variety of fields, including machine tools, clocks and watches, textile machinery, pumps and ships. One of these was a machine controlled by a punched-card system similar to the Jacquard loom for punching rivet holes in plates. This was used in the construction of the Conway and Menai Straits tubular bridges. Roberts was granted twenty-six patents, many of which, before the Patent Law Amendment Act of 1852, covered more than one invention; there were still other inventions he did not patent. He made his contribution to the discussion which led up to the 1852 Act by publishing, in 1830 and 1833, pamphlets suggesting reform of the Patent Law.In the early 1820s Roberts helped to establish the Manchester Mechanics' Institute, and in 1823 he was elected a member of the Literary and Philosophical Society of Manchester. He frequently contributed to their proceedings and in 1861 he was made an Honorary Member. He was elected a Member of the Institution of Civil Engineers in 1838. From 1838 to 1843 he served as a councillor of the then-new Municipal Borough of Manchester. In his final years, without the assistance of business partners, Roberts suffered financial difficulties, and at the time of his death a fund for his aid was being raised.[br]Principal Honours and DistinctionsMember, Institution of Civil Engineers 1838.Further ReadingThere is no full-length biography of Richard Roberts but the best account is H.W.Dickinson, 1945–7, "Richard Roberts, his life and inventions", Transactions of the Newcomen Society 25:123–37.W.H.Chaloner, 1968–9, "New light on Richard Roberts, textile engineer (1789–1864)", Transactions of the Newcomen Society 41:27–44.RTS -
13 Howe, Frederick Webster
[br]b. 28 August 1822 Danvers, Massachusetts, USAd. 25 April 1891 Providence, Rhode Island, USA[br]American mechanical engineer, machine-tool designer and inventor.[br]Frederick W.Howe attended local schools until the age of 16 and then entered the machine shop of Gay \& Silver at North Chelmsford, Massachusetts, as an apprentice and remained with that firm for nine years. He then joined Robbins, Kendall \& Lawrence of Windsor, Vermont, as Assistant to Richard S. Lawrence in designing machine tools. A year later (1848) he was made Plant Superintendent. During his time with this firm, Howe designed a profiling machine which was used in all gun shops in the United States: a barrel-drilling and rifling machine, and the first commercially successful milling machine. Robbins \& Lawrence took to the Great Exhibition of 1851 in London, England, a set of rifles built on the interchangeable system. The interest this created resulted in a visit of some members of the British Royal Small Arms Commission to America and subsequently in an order for 150 machine tools, jigs and fixtures from Robbins \& Lawrence, to be installed at the small-arms factory at Enfield. From 1853 to 1856 Howe was in charge of the design and building of these machines. In 1856 he established his own armoury at Newark, New Jersey, but transferred after two years to Middletown, Connecticut, where he continued the manufacture of small arms until the outbreak of the Civil War. He then became Superintendent of the armoury of the Providence Tool Company at Providence, Rhode Island, and served in that capacity until the end of the war. In 1865 he went to Bridgeport, Connecticut, to assist Elias Howe with the manufacture of his sewing machine. After the death of Elias Howe, Frederick Howe returned to Providence to join the Brown \& Sharpe Manufacturing Company. As Superintendent of that establishment he worked with Joseph R. Brown in the development of many of the firm's products, including machinery for the Wilcox \& Gibbs sewing machine then being made by Brown \& Sharpe. From 1876 Howe was in business on his own account as a consulting mechanical engineer and in his later years he was engaged in the development of shoe machinery and in designing a one-finger typewriter, which, however, was never completed. He was granted several patents, mainly in the fields of machine tools and firearms. As a designer, Howe was said to have been a perfectionist, making frequent improvements; when completed, his designs were always sound.[br]Further ReadingJ.W.Roe, 1916, English and American Tool Builders, New Haven; repub. 1926, New York, and 1987, Bradley, 111. (provides biographical details).R.S.Woodbury, 1960, History of the Milling Machine, Cambridge, Mass, (describes Howe's contribution to the development of the milling machine).RTSBiographical history of technology > Howe, Frederick Webster
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14 Ewart, Peter
SUBJECT AREA: Textiles[br]b. 14 May 1767 Traquair, near Peebles, Scotlandd. September 1842 London, England[br]Scottish pioneer in the mechanization of the textile industry.[br]Peter Ewart, the youngest of six sons, was born at Traquair manse, where his father was a clergyman in the Church of Scotland. He was educated at the Free School, Dumfries, and in 1782 spent a year at Edinburgh University. He followed this with an apprenticeship under John Rennie at Musselburgh before moving south in 1785 to help Rennie erect the Albion corn mill in London. This brought him into contact with Boulton \& Watt, and in 1788 he went to Birmingham to erect a waterwheel and other machinery in the Soho Manufactory. In 1789 he was sent to Manchester to install a steam engine for Peter Drinkwater and thus his long connection with the city began. In 1790 Ewart took up residence in Manchester as Boulton \& Watt's representative. Amongst other engines, he installed one for Samuel Oldknow at Stockport. In 1792 he became a partner with Oldknow in his cotton-spinning business, but because of financial difficulties he moved back to Birmingham in 1795 to help erect the machines in the new Soho Foundry. He was soon back in Manchester in partnership with Samuel Greg at Quarry Bank Mill, Styal, where he was responsible for developing the water power, installing a steam engine, and being concerned with the spinning machinery and, later, gas lighting at Greg's other mills.In 1798, Ewart devised an automatic expansion-gear for steam engines, but steam pressures at the time were too low for such a device to be effective. His grasp of the theory of steam power is shown by his paper to the Manchester Literary and Philosophical Society in 1808, On the Measure of Moving Force. In 1813 he patented a power loom to be worked by the pressure of steam or compressed air. In 1824 Charles Babbage consulted him about automatic looms. His interest in textiles continued until at least 1833, when he obtained a patent for a self-acting spinning mule, which was, however, outclassed by the more successful one invented by Richard Roberts. Ewart gave much help and advice to others. The development of the machine tools at Boulton \& Watt's Soho Foundry has been mentioned already. He also helped James Watt with his machine for copying sculptures. While he continued to run his own textile mill, Ewart was also in partnership with Charles Macintosh, the pioneer of rubber-coated cloth. He was involved with William Fairbairn concerning steam engines for the boats that Fairbairn was building in Manchester, and it was through Ewart that Eaton Hodgkinson was introduced to Fairbairn and so made the tests and calculations for the tubes for the Britannia Railway Bridge across the Menai Straits. Ewart was involved with the launching of the Liverpool \& Manchester Railway as he was a director of the Manchester Chamber of Commerce at the time.In 1835 he uprooted himself from Manchester and became the first Chief Engineer for the Royal Navy, assuming responsibility for the steamboats, which by 1837 numbered 227 in service. He set up repair facilities and planned workshops for overhauling engines at Woolwich Dockyard, the first establishment of its type. It was here that he was killed in an accident when a chain broke while he was supervising the lifting of a large boiler. Engineering was Ewart's life, and it is possible to give only a brief account of his varied interests and connections here.[br]Further ReadingObituary, 1843, "Institution of Civil Engineers", Annual General Meeting, January. Obituary, 1843, Manchester Literary and Philosophical Society Memoirs (NS) 7. R.L.Hills, 1987–8, "Peter Ewart, 1767–1843", Manchester Literary and PhilosophicalSociety Memoirs 127.M.B.Rose, 1986, The Gregs of Quarry Bank Mill The Rise and Decline of a Family Firm, 1750–1914, Cambridge (covers E wart's involvement with Samuel Greg).R.L.Hills, 1970, Power in the Industrial Revolution, Manchester; R.L.Hills, 1989, Powerfrom Steam, Cambridge (both look at Ewart's involvement with textiles and steam engines).RLH -
15 Ramsden, Jesse
SUBJECT AREA: Mechanical, pneumatic and hydraulic engineering[br]b. 6 October 1735 (?) Halifax, Yorkshire, Englandd. 5 November 1800 Brighton, Sussex, England[br]English instrument-maker who developed machines for accurately measuring angular and linear scales.[br]Jesse Ramsden was the son of an innkeeper but received a good general education: after attending the free school at Halifax, he was sent at the age of 12 to his uncle for further study, particularly in mathematics. At the age of 16 he was apprenticed to a cloth-worker in Halifax and on completion of the apprenticeship in 1755 he moved to London to work as a clerk in a cloth warehouse. In 1758 he became an apprentice in the workshop of a London mathematical instrument-maker named Burton. He quickly gained the skill, particularly in engraving, and by 1762 he was able to set up on his own account. He married in 1765 or 1766 the youngest daughter of the optician John Dollond FRS (1706– 61) and received a share of Dollond's patent for making achromatic lenses.Ramsden's experience and reputation increased rapidly and he was generally regarded as the leading instrument-maker of his time. He opened a shop in the Haymarket and transferred to Piccadilly in 1775. His staff increased to about sixty workers and apprentices, and by 1789 he had constructed nearly 1,000 sextants as well as theodolites, micrometers, balances, barometers, quadrants and other instruments.One of Ramsden's most important contributions to precision measurement was his development of machines for obtaining accurate division of angular and linear scales. For this work he received a premium from the Commissioners of the Board of Longitude, who published his descriptions of the machines. For the trigonometrical survey of Great Britain, initiated by General William Roy FRS (1726–90) and continued by the Board of Ordnance, Ramsden supplied a 3 ft (91 cm) theodolite and steel measuring chains, and was also engaged to check the glass tubes used to measure the fundamental base line.[br]Principal Honours and DistinctionsFRS 1786; Royal Society Copley Medal 1795. Member, Imperial Academy of St Petersburg 1794. Member, Smeatonian Society of Civil Engineers 1793.Bibliography1774, Description of a New Universal Equatorial Instrument, London; repub. 1791. 1777, Description of an Engine for Dividing Mathematical Instruments, London. 1779, Description of an Engine for Dividing Straight Lines on MathematicalInstruments, London.1779, "Description of two new micrometers", Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society 69:419–31.1782, "A new construction of eyeglasses for such telescopes as may be applied to mathematical instruments", Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society 73:94–99.Further ReadingR.S.Woodbury, 1961, History of the Lathe to 1850, Cleveland, Ohio; W.Steeds, 1969, A History of Machine Tools 1700–1910, Oxford (both provide a brief description of Ramsden's dividing machines).RTS -
16 Parkhurst, Edward G.
[br]b. 29 August 1830 Thompson, Connecticut, USAd. 31 July 1901 Hartford, Connecticut, USA[br]American mechanical engineer and inventor.[br]Little is known of the early training of Edward G. Parkhurst, but at the time of Civil War (1861–5) he was employed by the Savage Arms Company of Middletown, Connecticut. In 1869 he joined the Pratt \& Whitney Company of Hartford, Connecticut, as Assistant Superintendent and later took charge of their gun department. He was the inventor of many improvements in machine tools and armaments. Among these was an automatic rod feeder for turret lathes, in which movement of a single lever enabled bar stock to be fed through the lathe spindle and gripped by a collet chuck while the machine was in motion. This was patented in August 1871 and was followed by other patents, particularly for improvements in machine guns and their accessories. Parkhurst retired from Pratt \& Whitney c. 1895 but was afterwards associated with the American Ordnance Company and the Bethlehem Steel Company. He was a founder member of the American Society of Mechanical Engineers in 1880 and served his home city of Hartford as Councillor and Alderman. In 1900 he contributed to the journal American Machinist some articles of reminiscences dealing with the early history of the American machine-tool industry and, in particular, the earliest milling machines and the origin of the turret lathe.RTS
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